PEARSON SERIES IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE - Russell Stuart, Norvig Peter - Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 4th Global Edition [2022, PDF, ENG]

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Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 4th Global Edition
Год издания: 2022
Автор: Russell Stuart, Norvig Peter
Издательство: Pearson
ISBN: 978-1-292-40113-3
Серия: PEARSON SERIES IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Язык: Английский
Формат: PDF
Качество: Издательский макет или текст (eBook)
Интерактивное оглавление: Да
Количество страниц: 1167
Описание: The most comprehensive, up-to-date introduction to the theory and practice of artificial intelligence.
The long-anticipated revision of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach explores the full breadth and depth of the field of artificial intelligence (AI).
The 4th Edition brings readers up to date on the latest technologies, presents concepts in a more unified manner, and offers new or expanded coverage of machine learning, deep learning, transfer learning, multiagent systems, robotics, natural language processing, causality, probabilistic programming, privacy, fairness, and safe AI.
Author's (Companion) website: http://aima.eecs.berkeley.edu/global-index.html

Примеры страниц

Оглавление

I Artificial Intelligence
1 Introduction 19
1.1 What Is AI? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3 The History of Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4 The State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.5 Risks and Benefits of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2 Intelligent Agents 54
2.1 Agents and Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2 Good Behavior: The Concept of Rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3 The Nature of Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4 The Structure of Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
II Problem-solving
3 Solving Problems by Searching 81
3.1 Problem-Solving Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 Example Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3 Search Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Uninformed Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5 Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.6 Heuristic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4 Search in Complex Environments 128
4.1 Local Search and Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2 Local Search in Continuous Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3 Search with Nondeterministic Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.4 Search in Partially Observable Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.5 Online Search Agents and Unknown Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5 Constraint Satisfaction Problems 164
5.1 Defining Constraint Satisfaction Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2 Constraint Propagation: Inference in CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.3 Backtracking Search for CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.4 Local Search for CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.5 The Structure of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6 Adversarial Search and Games 192
6.1 Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2 Optimal Decisions in Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3 Heuristic Alpha–Beta Tree Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.4 Monte Carlo Tree Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.5 Stochastic Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.6 Partially Observable Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7 Limitations of Game Search Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
III Knowledge, reasoning, and planning
7 Logical Agents 226
7.1 Knowledge-Based Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.2 The Wumpus World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.4 Propositional Logic: A Very Simple Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.5 Propositional Theorem Proving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.6 Effective Propositional Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.7 Agents Based on Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8 First-Order Logic 269
8.1 Representation Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.2 Syntax and Semantics of First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.3 Using First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.4 Knowledge Engineering in First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
9 Inference in First-Order Logic 298
9.1 Propositional vs. First-Order Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.2 Unification and First-Order Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
9.3 Forward Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.4 Backward Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.5 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10 Knowledge Representation 332
10.1 Ontological Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.2 Categories and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
10.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
10.4 Mental Objects and Modal Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
10.5 Reasoning Systems for Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.6 Reasoning with Default Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11 Automated Planning 362
11.1 Definition of Classical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
11.2 Algorithms for Classical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
11.3 Heuristics for Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
11.4 Hierarchical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
11.5 Planning and Acting in Nondeterministic Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
11.6 Time, Schedules, and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
11.7 Analysis of Planning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
IV Uncertain knowledge and reasoning
12 Quantifying Uncertainty 403
12.1 Acting under Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
12.2 Basic Probability Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
12.3 Inference Using Full Joint Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
12.4 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
12.5 Bayes’ Rule and Its Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
12.6 Naive Bayes Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
12.7 The Wumpus World Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
13 Probabilistic Reasoning 430
13.1 Representing Knowledge in an Uncertain Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
13.2 The Semantics of Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13.3 Exact Inference in Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
13.4 Approximate Inference for Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.5 Causal Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
14 Probabilistic Reasoning over Time 479
14.1 Time and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
14.2 Inference in Temporal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
14.3 Hidden Markov Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
14.4 Kalman Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
14.5 Dynamic Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
15 Making Simple Decisions 518
15.1 Combining Beliefs and Desires under Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
15.2 The Basis of Utility Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
15.3 Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
15.4 Multiattribute Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
15.5 Decision Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
15.6 The Value of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
15.7 Unknown Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
16 Making Complex Decisions 552
16.1 Sequential Decision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
16.2 Algorithms for MDPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
16.3 Bandit Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
16.4 Partially Observable MDPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
16.5 Algorithms for Solving POMDPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
17 Multiagent Decision Making 589
17.1 Properties of Multiagent Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
17.2 Non-Cooperative Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
17.3 Cooperative Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
17.4 Making Collective Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
18 Probabilistic Programming 641
18.1 Relational Probability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
18.2 Open-Universe Probability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
18.3 Keeping Track of a Complex World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
18.4 Programs as Probability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
V Machine Learning
19 Learning from Examples 669
19.1 Forms of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
19.2 Supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
19.3 Learning Decision Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
19.4 Model Selection and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
19.5 The Theory of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
19.6 Linear Regression and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
19.7 Nonparametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
19.8 Ensemble Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
19.9 Developing Machine Learning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
20 Knowledge in Learning 739
20.1 A Logical Formulation of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
20.2 Knowledge in Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
20.3 Explanation-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
20.4 Learning Using Relevance Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
20.5 Inductive Logic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
21 Learning Probabilistic Models 772
21.1 Statistical Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
21.2 Learning with Complete Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
21.3 Learning with Hidden Variables: The EM Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
22 Deep Learning 801
22.1 Simple Feedforward Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
22.2 Computation Graphs for Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
22.3 Convolutional Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
22.4 Learning Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
22.5 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
22.6 Recurrent Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
22.7 Unsupervised Learning and Transfer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
22.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
23 Reinforcement Learning 840
23.1 Learning from Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
23.2 Passive Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
23.3 Active Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
23.4 Generalization in Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
23.5 Policy Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
23.6 Apprenticeship and Inverse Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
23.7 Applications of Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
VI Communicating, perceiving, and acting
24 Natural Language Processing 874
24.1 Language Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
24.2 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
24.3 Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
24.4 Augmented Grammars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
24.5 Complications of Real Natural Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
24.6 Natural Language Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
25 Deep Learning for Natural Language Processing 907
25.1 Word Embeddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
25.2 Recurrent Neural Networks for NLP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
25.3 Sequence-to-Sequence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
25.4 The Transformer Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
25.5 Pretraining and Transfer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
25.6 State of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
26 Robotics 932
26.1 Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
26.2 Robot Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
26.3 What kind of problem is robotics solving? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
26.4 Robotic Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
26.5 Planning and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
26.6 Planning Uncertain Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
26.7 Reinforcement Learning in Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
26.8 Humans and Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
26.9 Alternative Robotic Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
26.10 Application Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
27 Computer Vision 988
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
27.2 Image Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
27.3 Simple Image Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
27.4 Classifying Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
27.5 Detecting Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
27.6 The 3D World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
27.7 Using Computer Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
VII Conclusions
28 Philosophy, Ethics, and Safety of AI 1032
28.1 The Limits of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
28.2 Can Machines Really Think? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
28.3 The Ethics of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
29 The Future of AI 1063
29.1 AI Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
29.2 AI Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
A Mathematical Background 1074
A.1 Complexity Analysis and O() Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
A.2 Vectors, Matrices, and Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
A.3 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Bibliographical and Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
B Notes on Languages and Algorithms 1081
B.1 Defining Languages with Backus–Naur Form (BNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
B.2 Describing Algorithms with Pseudocode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
B.3 Online Supplemental Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
Bibliography 1084
Index 1119
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